Starting a habit, listening to another person, turning experience into better judgment. Explore 67 academic publications in eight fields through questions from everyday work.
What the research found → Connections to your work
Each entry includes the study’s participants, methods and conditions. “Connection to this page” is our editorial interpretation informed by the research.
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All 67 studies
67 studies
Meta-analysis (chapter in a research series)2006
Implementation Intentions and Goal Achievement: A Meta-analysis of Effects and Processes
Plans linking a situation to an action improved goal attainment on average. The review also examined processes that turn goals into action, including getting started and responding to obstacles along the way.
Connection to this page
After choosing one of the 116 habits, decide which task and situation will provide an opportunity to try it.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Combined 94 independent tests of plans that specify 'If this situation occurs, I will take this action,' in addition to setting a goal.
Scope and limitations
Goals, plans and participants varied. The findings do not imply the same effect for every action in every workplace.
Peter M. Gollwitzer; Paschal Sheeran (2006). Implementation Intentions and Goal Achievement: A Meta-analysis of Effects and Processes
Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 69–119
DOI: 10.1016/S0065-2601(06)38002-1
Longitudinal observational study in everyday settings2010
How are habits formed: Modelling habit formation in the real world
Automaticity tended to increase with repetition in a consistent context. The pace of habit formation varied considerably between people, and missing one occasion did not substantially affect the formation process.
Connection to this page
Connect one action to a recurring situation, such as starting work each morning or finishing a consultation, rather than trying to remember many actions at once.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
96 people chose an eating, drinking or physical activity behavior, repeated it in the same context for 12 weeks, and recorded performance and automaticity.
Scope and limitations
The study mainly used self-reports of health behaviors. It does not establish a fixed number of days for workplace habits to form.
Phillippa Lally; Cornelia H. M. van Jaarsveld; Henry W. W. Potts; Jane Wardle (2010). How are habits formed: Modelling habit formation in the real world
European Journal of Social Psychology, 40(6), 998–1009
DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.674
Everyday observational research (two diary studies)2002
Habits in Everyday Life: Thought, Emotion, and Action
During habitual actions, people were more likely to think about something unrelated to the action itself. This was consistent with the account that recurring contexts can cue behavior without renewed conscious deliberation each time.
Connection to this page
Consider which cues, such as a signal to begin work, can become habitual, while rechecking judgments when people or circumstances change.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Participants recorded everyday actions, thoughts and emotions at hourly intervals. Actions repeated in stable contexts were compared with other actions.
Scope and limitations
Diary observations cannot establish causality. The research does not suggest automating complex judgments at work.
Wendy Wood; Jeffrey M. Quinn; Deborah A. Kashy (2002). Habits in Everyday Life: Thought, Emotion, and Action
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(6), 1281–1297
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1281
Experimental research (multiple experiments)2011
Consider It Done! Plan Making Can Eliminate the Cognitive Effects of Unfulfilled Goals
Unfinished goals intruded into thoughts during other tasks, but making specific plans to achieve them reduced this interference.
Connection to this page
Before ending work, leave a clear point for resuming an unfinished task and a record of what to do next.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Made unfinished goals salient and examined whether specific plans changed intrusive thoughts during reading and interference with other tasks.
Scope and limitations
The experiments mainly measured cognitive interference. They did not establish that writing a plan resolves every unfinished task.
E. J. Masicampo; Roy F. Baumeister (2011). Consider It Done! Plan Making Can Eliminate the Cognitive Effects of Unfulfilled Goals
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(4), 667–683
DOI: 10.1037/a0024192
Meta-analysis of randomized experiments2016
Does Monitoring Goal Progress Promote Goal Attainment? A Meta-Analysis of the Experimental Evidence
Interventions that increased the frequency of progress monitoring improved goal attainment on average. Effects tended to be larger when progress was recorded or results were reported or made public.
Connection to this page
Briefly record what the other person did and how work progressed after trying a habit, then use that information to choose the next action.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Combined 138 studies involving 19,951 participants randomly assigned to interventions promoting progress monitoring or to control conditions.
Scope and limitations
Participants and interventions varied. The findings do not mean that more recording and reporting will always move work forward.
Benjamin Harkin; Thomas L. Webb; Betty P. I. Chang; Andrew Prestwich; Mark Conner; Ian Kellar; Yael Benn; Paschal Sheeran (2016). Does Monitoring Goal Progress Promote Goal Attainment? A Meta-Analysis of the Experimental Evidence
Psychological Bulletin, 142(2), 198–229
DOI: 10.1037/bul0000025
Field observations (three archival studies)2014
The Fresh Start Effect: Temporal Landmarks Motivate Aspirational Behavior
Searches and actions aimed at positive change tended to increase after temporal landmarks. A landmark separating the past from the present may provide an opportunity to get started.
Connection to this page
Offer an opportunity to choose one habit suited to current work at the start of a week, while treating support for continued use as a separate question.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Analyzed search histories, gym attendance and records of goal-directed activity around temporal landmarks such as the start of a week, month or year.
Scope and limitations
The research mainly used observational data on initiation. It does not uniformly establish persistence or a causal effect of the landmark alone.
Hengchen Dai; Katherine L. Milkman; Jason Riis (2014). The Fresh Start Effect: Temporal Landmarks Motivate Aspirational Behavior
Management Science, 60(10), 2563–2582
DOI: 10.1287/mnsc.2014.1901
Randomized field experiment2014
Holding the Hunger Games Hostage at the Gym: An Evaluation of Temptation Bundling
Combining an enjoyable activity with exercise increased initial gym attendance. The effect weakened over time, with a particularly marked decline after a holiday break.
Connection to this page
Create conditions that make starting easier, rather than relying only on willpower, and check whether the behavior continues after it begins.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Randomly assigned participants to conditions including access to engaging audiobooks only at the gym, and tracked actual gym attendance.
Scope and limitations
The study tested a particular combination of exercise and audiobooks. The same approach may not sustain workplace behaviors.
Katherine L. Milkman; Julia A. Minson; Kevin G. M. Volpp (2014). Holding the Hunger Games Hostage at the Gym: An Evaluation of Temptation Bundling
Management Science, 60(2), 283–299
DOI: 10.1287/mnsc.2013.1784
Large randomized field experiment2021
Megastudies improve the impact of applied behavioural science
Interventions differed in effectiveness. Few of those effective during the intervention produced lasting changes afterward. Predictions made in advance did not reliably identify which approaches would work.
Connection to this page
Avoid assuming an effect from a habit's description alone. Try it in current work, and examine both the immediate response and later changes.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Compared 54 four-week digital interventions among 61,293 members of a US fitness chain, using a common population, period and gym-attendance measure.
Scope and limitations
The study involved one exercise service and short interventions. The same rankings or lasting effects cannot be assumed for workplace habits.
Katherine L. Milkman; Dena Gromet; Hung Ho et al. (2021). Megastudies improve the impact of applied behavioural science
Nature, 600, 478–483
DOI: 10.1038/s41586-021-04128-4
Meta-analysis and theoretical proposal1996
The Effects of Feedback Interventions on Performance: A Historical Review, a Meta-Analysis, and a Preliminary Feedback Intervention Theory
Feedback improved performance on average, but a substantial number of interventions reduced it. Feedback that shifted attention away from the task and toward the self tended to be less effective.
Connection to this page
Consider consultations and reports that clarify which action and result to examine, and what can change next, rather than evaluating the person.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Combined 607 effect sizes and 23,663 observations concerning feedback interventions, examining differences such as where attention was directed.
Scope and limitations
Tasks and ways of delivering feedback varied. Changing particular words alone cannot be expected to improve performance in every situation.
Avraham N. Kluger; Angelo DeNisi (1996). The Effects of Feedback Interventions on Performance: A Historical Review, a Meta-Analysis, and a Preliminary Feedback Intervention Theory
Psychological Bulletin, 119(2), 254–284
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.119.2.254
Experimental research (two studies)2009
Reflection as a strategy to enhance task performance after feedback
Thinking through and writing concrete examples of behavior after feedback produced greater performance improvement than feedback alone. Reflection without feedback did not improve performance.
Connection to this page
Go beyond receiving advice: review what happened when it was tried, and bring those results into the next consultation.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Two studies with 640 and 488 participants compared combinations of feedback and reflection in a web-based work simulation.
Scope and limitations
The findings concern a work simulation. The effects also differed with participants' engagement in reflection and their orientation toward learning.
Frederik Anseel; Filip Lievens; Eveline Schollaert (2009). Reflection as a strategy to enhance task performance after feedback
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 110(1), 23–35
DOI: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2009.05.003
Meta-analysis2013
Do Team and Individual Debriefs Enhance Performance? A Meta-Analysis
Reviewing experience after action improved subsequent performance on average. Alignment with the task's purpose, structure and support for the review were related to effectiveness.
Connection to this page
Briefly bring together the purpose of the work, actual actions, the other person's response and what to change next.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Combined the effects of debriefing across 46 samples and 2,136 participants, covering real work and simulations, medical and nonmedical settings, and individuals and teams.
Scope and limitations
The findings average studies with different settings and evaluation methods. They do not establish a uniform improvement rate from workplace reflection alone.
Scott I. Tannenbaum; Christopher P. Cerasoli (2013). Do Team and Individual Debriefs Enhance Performance? A Meta-Analysis
Human Factors, 55(1), 231–245
DOI: 10.1177/0018720812448394
Quasi-experimental field study2005
After-Event Reviews: Drawing Lessons From Successful and Failed Experience
The group reviewing both success and failure improved subsequent performance more than the group reviewing failure alone. Understanding of successful events also became richer through repeated review.
Connection to this page
Record not only problems but also what helped when the other person's work progressed, so that the conditions can inform future work.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
During soldiers' repeated navigation exercises, compared reviewing failures alone with reviewing both successes and failures.
Scope and limitations
This quasi-experiment used a particular military exercise. The same effects cannot simply be assumed for sales, planning or management work.
Shmuel Ellis; Inbar Davidi (2005). After-Event Reviews: Drawing Lessons From Successful and Failed Experience
Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(5), 857–871
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.90.5.857
Meta-analysis2008
Effectiveness of error management training: A meta-analysis
Training that used errors as opportunities to learn helped skill acquisition and transfer on average. Benefits were particularly large for new tasks that differed in structure from the practice tasks.
Connection to this page
Secure a clear scope for decisions and appropriate support, try something small, and use unexpected responses to inform the next judgment.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Compared training that encourages learning through attempts and errors with approaches such as step-by-step error avoidance, across 24 studies and 2,183 participants.
Scope and limitations
The studies provided practice settings for learning. They do not recommend errors that could cause serious harm in real work.
Nina Keith; Michael Frese (2008). Effectiveness of error management training: A meta-analysis
Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(1), 59–69
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.93.1.59
Meta-analysis2020
The Power of Feedback Revisited: A Meta-Analysis of Educational Feedback Research
Feedback helped learning on average, but effects varied considerably. Its usefulness depended on the information it contained, with differences between cognitive and motor outcomes and motivational and behavioral outcomes.
Connection to this page
Consider the value of reporting what was tried and what changed, beyond simply saying that something went well.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Combined 435 educational studies, 994 effect sizes and more than 61,000 learners to examine feedback effects and differences between conditions.
Scope and limitations
The review combined heterogeneous interventions mainly in education. It did not directly measure advice or reporting in everyday work.
Benedikt Wisniewski; Klaus Zierer; John Hattie (2020). The Power of Feedback Revisited: A Meta-Analysis of Educational Feedback Research
Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 3087
DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.03087
Meta-analysis2021
When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure
Overall, attempting problems before receiving instruction was more effective. Effects depended on fidelity to the design, learners' ages and the skills being learned; some conditions favored instruction first.
Connection to this page
Bring questions and other people's responses from an initial attempt into a consultation, then reconsider what the advice means.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Across 53 studies and 166 comparisons, examined problem solving followed by instruction versus instruction followed by problem solving.
Scope and limitations
The research concerns educational designs that include subsequent instruction. It does not recommend unsupported failure or trying every workplace task alone before seeking help.
Tanmay Sinha; Manu Kapur (2021). When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure
Review of Educational Research, 91(5), 761–798
DOI: 10.3102/00346543211019105
Meta-analysis2010
Transfer of Training: A Meta-Analytic Review
Motivation and supportive workplace conditions were positively associated with using learning at work. Relationships differed between skills whose use varies with the situation, such as leadership, and skills such as operating procedures.
Connection to this page
Alongside introducing knowledge and actions, provide time to try them, necessary materials and support, and check whether learning was used in actual work.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Combined 89 empirical studies of transfer—using learning in other tasks or jobs—covering individual characteristics, workplace conditions and training methods.
Scope and limitations
Much of the evidence summarizes associations with predictors and cannot establish causality. Ratings from the same person or measurement setting sometimes produced larger associations.
Brian D. Blume; J. Kevin Ford; Timothy T. Baldwin; Jason L. Huang (2010). Transfer of Training: A Meta-Analytic Review
Journal of Management, 36(4), 1065–1105
DOI: 10.1177/0149206309352880
Foundational theory and conceptual review2005
Self-determination theory and work motivation
Distinguished motivation based on enjoyment from motivation based on accepting the value of the work, while treating both as forms of acting willingly. The account emphasizes environments that support autonomy, competence and relatedness.
Connection to this page
Provides theoretical background for an entry point where readers choose one habit to try in light of the purpose of their own work.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
A theoretical paper organizing self-determination theory and prior research to explain work motivation in terms of degrees of autonomy.
Scope and limitations
This is not a new intervention experiment or meta-analysis. It does not test whether simply offering options increases autonomy or whether leaving people to act alone is sufficient.
Marylène Gagné; Edward L. Deci (2005). Self-determination theory and work motivation
Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(4), 331–362
DOI: 10.1002/job.322
Original research (repeated workplace surveys and a quasi-experiment)1989
Self-determination in a work organization
Managers' autonomy-supportive orientations were associated with subordinates' perceptions of work and satisfaction. Managers' orientations improved after the intervention, but the effects on subordinates were less conclusive.
Connection to this page
Consider how communication and relationships can support people's choices and attempts, then check the actual responses that follow.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Surveyed 23 managers and their subordinates in a large company at three time points. An intervention helping managers support subordinates' self-determination was evaluated at staggered times across sites.
Scope and limitations
The number of managers was small, and changes in the workplace and the handling of comparison groups introduced constraints. Changes in managers cannot be treated as equivalent to effects on subordinates.
Edward L. Deci; James P. Connell; Richard M. Ryan (1989). Self-determination in a work organization
Journal of Applied Psychology, 74(4), 580–590
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.74.4.580
Meta-analysis2018
Leader autonomy support in the workplace: A meta-analytic review
Perceiving a supervisor as respecting one's perspective and choices was positively associated with autonomous work motivation, basic need satisfaction, positive work behaviors and well-being.
Connection to this page
Provides background for considering work conditions that offer room to think and choose, along with necessary materials and support from others.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Combined 754 correlations from 72 workplace studies, 83 independent samples and 32,870 people, examining autonomy-supportive leadership, motivation, basic needs and work outcomes.
Scope and limitations
Many studies were cross-sectional and used self-reports. Reverse relationships and shared measurement methods are possible. The evidence does not establish that supervisors' behavior causes the outcomes.
Gavin R. Slemp; Margaret L. Kern; Kent J. Patrick; Richard M. Ryan (2018). Leader autonomy support in the workplace: A meta-analytic review
Motivation and Emotion, 42(5), 706–724
DOI: 10.1007/s11031-018-9698-y
Original research (experiment)1994
Facilitating internalization: The self-determination theory perspective
An environment that explained the reason, acknowledged feelings and conveyed choice increased the tendency to accept engagement in the task as one's own.
Connection to this page
Explain the purpose of trying an action and leave room for the person to choose, rather than simply prescribing what to do.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Assigned 192 psychology students to eight combinations of meaningful explanations, acknowledgment of feelings and language conveying choice, then compared subsequent engagement in an uninteresting task.
Scope and limitations
This was a short task experiment with students. It did not directly examine sustained workplace behavior or performance, and it does not show that wording alone is sufficient.
Edward L. Deci; Haleh Eghrari; Brian C. Patrick; Dean R. Leone (1994). Facilitating internalization: The self-determination theory perspective
Journal of Personality, 62(1), 119–142
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1994.tb00797.x
Foundational theory (integrating evidence from treatment research)1977
Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change
Explained the expectation of being able to act as drawing on actual accomplishments, others' experiences, verbal influence and bodily states. The theory connects these expectations with initiation, effort and persistence.
Connection to this page
Provides background for viewing an attempt and a review of what happened as information that can shape expectations about taking the next action.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Integrated theories of behavior change with evidence from treatment procedures involving direct action, observing others and emotional processes, presenting a framework for self-efficacy.
Scope and limitations
This foundational theory was developed largely from clinical behavior change. General confidence differs from self-efficacy for a specific action, and neither guarantees actual workplace ability or results.
Albert Bandura (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change
A meta-analytic investigation of the within-person self-efficacy domain: Is self-efficacy a product of past performance or a driver of future performance?
After adjustment for the time trend, the relationship between self-efficacy and later performance was weak and not significant. The relationship between past performance and later self-efficacy remained, with differences across tasks and conditions.
Connection to this page
Go beyond raising confidence: examine what happened in an actual attempt, then adjust expectations and the next action.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Combined studies of changes in the same person's self-efficacy and task performance over time, comparing past performance predicting self-efficacy with the reverse relationship.
Scope and limitations
These findings concern within-person change and cannot simply be generalized to differences in ability between people. They do not mean that self-efficacy is always irrelevant.
Traci Sitzmann; Gillian Yeo (2013). A meta-analytic investigation of the within-person self-efficacy domain: Is self-efficacy a product of past performance or a driver of future performance?
Personnel Psychology, 66(3), 531–568
DOI: 10.1111/peps.12035
Original research (workplace survey)2006
Modeling the antecedents of proactive behavior at work
Job autonomy, self-efficacy for acting beyond a narrow task range, and flexible role orientation were associated with proactive behavior. Coworker trust was also consistent with a model operating through role orientation.
Connection to this page
Consider room for choice, a sense of capability and relationships with others, rather than attributing independent judgment and action solely to personality.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Surveyed 282 UK wire-manufacturing employees about proactive idea implementation and problem solving, checking self-reports against other people's ratings for 60 of them.
Scope and limitations
The findings are associations in one occupational group, not causal conclusions from manipulating variables. The study did not find that every form of supervisory support was effective.
Sharon K. Parker; Helen M. Williams; Nick Turner (2006). Modeling the antecedents of proactive behavior at work
Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(3), 636–652
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.91.3.636
Original research (concept and measurement validation; field studies)1997
The concept of personal initiative: Operationalization, reliability and validity in two German samples
Measures of self-starting, forward-looking initiative were associated with assessments by close others, planning and executing plans, and action orientation. They were not associated with job satisfaction.
Connection to this page
View initiative through concrete actions—anticipating, choosing and carrying out work—rather than only through the strength of someone's enthusiasm.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Tested interview and questionnaire measures of personal initiative using two waves of a longitudinal study of 543 people in East Germany and a cross-sectional study of 160 people in West Germany.
Scope and limitations
The focus was on validating the concept and its measurement, not testing performance improvements from a specific habit or teaching method. Social and historical conditions also matter.
Michael Frese; Doris Fay; Tanja Hilburger; Karena Leng; Almut Tag (1997). The concept of personal initiative: Operationalization, reliability and validity in two German samples
Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 70(2), 139–161
DOI: 10.1111/j.2044-8325.1997.tb00639.x
Original research (experiments)1972
Contextual prerequisites for understanding: Some investigations of comprehension and recall
Receiving appropriate context beforehand produced higher comprehension ratings and more recall than receiving it afterward or other conditions. Even with the same words and sentences, having a context that connected the content made a difference.
Connection to this page
Provides background for sharing which task or situation is being discussed, beyond the meanings of individual words, and for checking the assumptions behind the other person's interpretation.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Four experiments with participants including high school students presented contextual pictures or topics before or after hearing hard-to-understand passages, comparing self-rated comprehension and recall.
Scope and limitations
The experiments used short passages constructed to be difficult to interpret, with self-ratings as one measure of comprehension. They did not directly measure actual job experience, occupational differences or workplace judgment accuracy.
John D. Bransford; Marcia K. Johnson (1972). Contextual prerequisites for understanding: Some investigations of comprehension and recall
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11(6), 717–726
DOI: 10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80006-9
Original research (experiments)1978
Recall of previously unrecallable information following a shift in perspective
After changing perspective, participants recalled additional information important to the new perspective and less information important only to the old one. Perspective affected retrieval as well as the initial reading.
Connection to this page
Provides background for considering how people may retrieve different information as important from the same event. Ask what the other person is attending to when judging, rather than assuming it from their job title.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
In two experiments, university students read a story from a burglar's or prospective homebuyer's perspective, recalled it once, then changed perspective and recalled it again.
Scope and limitations
The study concerns temporarily assigned perspectives and story memory, not comparisons of actual sales, planning and management roles or effects of everyday work experience. It does not justify fixed classifications of how each role perceives things.
Richard C. Anderson; James W. Pichert (1978). Recall of previously unrecallable information following a shift in perspective
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 17(1), 1–12
DOI: 10.1016/S0022-5371(78)90485-1
Foundational theory (book chapter)1991
Grounding in communication
Described conversation as joint work: beyond sending an utterance, people use each other's responses to establish whether understanding is shared sufficiently for their purpose.
Connection to this page
View checking as a back-and-forth in which each person's responses help adjust communication and understanding, rather than a one-way effort to extract all the conditions.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Organized examples of face-to-face conversation and prior research into an account of how the purpose and medium of communication change the methods and costs of checking understanding.
Scope and limitations
This is not an experiment measuring a new intervention. Nor does the theory require perfect agreement on everything; the necessary level of understanding depends on purpose and medium.
Herbert H. Clark; Susan E. Brennan (1991). Grounding in communication
Perspectives on socially shared cognition, pp. 127–149 (APA; book chapter)
DOI: 10.1037/10096-006
Original research (experiments)2018
Perspective mistaking: Accurately understanding the mind of another requires getting perspective, not taking perspective
Instructions to imagine another person's perspective did not consistently improve prediction accuracy and sometimes increased confidence alone. Accuracy improved when direct conversation supplied new information.
Connection to this page
Offer a tentative understanding and ask about it, then update it from the answer, rather than deciding someone else's background or criteria for them.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
25 experiments tested whether instructions to imagine another person's perspective improved predictions of emotions, preferences and other states. The final experiment also compared direct conversation.
Scope and limitations
The outcome was accuracy in predicting particular mental states. The research did not directly measure consideration for others in general, long-term collaboration or workplace results.
Tal Eyal; Mary Steffel; Nicholas Epley (2018). Perspective mistaking: Accurately understanding the mind of another requires getting perspective, not taking perspective
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 114(4), 547–571
DOI: 10.1037/pspa0000115
Original research (individual-difference measures and experiments)2008
Why It Pays to Get Inside the Head of Your Opponent: The Differential Effects of Perspective Taking and Empathy in Negotiations
Cognitively considering the other person's position helped reveal hidden opportunities for agreement and mutually beneficial trade-offs. Results differed from those for emotional empathy.
Connection to this page
Consider the other person's circumstances and priorities alongside your own, and explore options while checking assumptions through actual dialogue.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Three studies compared perspective taking and empathy using individual-difference measures and experimental manipulations, examining agreements and trade-offs across negotiation issues.
Scope and limitations
The findings concern specific negotiation tasks. They do not mean empathy is unnecessary in everyday collaboration or demonstrate an ability to accurately infer another person's feelings.
Adam D. Galinsky; William W. Maddux; Debra Gilin; Judith B. White (2008). Why It Pays to Get Inside the Head of Your Opponent: The Differential Effects of Perspective Taking and Empathy in Negotiations
Psychological Science, 19(4), 378–384
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02096.x
Original research (experiment)2014
The Relative Effectiveness of Active Listening in Initial Interactions
People receiving active-listening responses felt more understood than those receiving advice or brief acknowledgments. However, satisfaction with the conversation and liking for the partner did not differ from the advice condition.
Connection to this page
Before offering advice, consider reflecting what you heard in your own words so that the other person can add to or correct it.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
115 participants conversed with 10 confederates trained to respond with active listening, advice or brief acknowledgments. Their reactions after the conversations were compared.
Scope and limitations
The study mainly concerns short first encounters and self-reports. Feeling understood must be distinguished from accurately sharing the content of a message.
Harry Weger Jr.; Gina Castle Bell; Elizabeth M. Minei; Melissa C. Robinson (2014). The Relative Effectiveness of Active Listening in Initial Interactions
International Journal of Listening, 28(1), 13–31
DOI: 10.1080/10904018.2013.813234
Original research (workplace quasi-experiments)2017
Can holding a stick improve listening at work? The effect of Listening Circles on employees’ emotions and cognitions
Experiencing good listening was linked to reduced social anxiety, reflection on one's own thinking and greater acknowledgment of the complexity of opinions.
Connection to this page
Consider relationships that let people examine their views while speaking and express doubts or contradictions, without rushing to evaluate their ideas.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Three quasi-experiments with 31, 66 and 83 employees compared Listening Circles, where one person speaks at a time, with other workshops or no training.
Scope and limitations
These were not randomized experiments, and the effects include the group intervention as a whole. The study did not directly test a brief listening phrase or effects on business performance.
Guy Itzchakov; Avraham N. Kluger (2017). Can holding a stick improve listening at work? The effect of Listening Circles on employees’ emotions and cognitions
European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 26(5), 663–676
DOI: 10.1080/1359432X.2017.1351429
Meta-analysis2010
The cognitive underpinnings of effective teamwork: A meta-analysis
The nature of shared understanding and knowledge in teams was positively associated with behavioral teamwork processes and performance. Relationships varied with the content and form of cognition and factors such as task interdependence.
Connection to this page
Consider which purposes, roles and circumstances need to be shared and where members' different expertise can complement one another. This relates to the difficulty of proceeding while differences in understanding remain unresolved.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Combined 231 correlations from 65 independent studies of team cognition, examining relationships with teamwork processes, motivation and performance, and differences between tasks and teams.
Scope and limitations
The review mainly integrates correlations, not a simple causal demonstration that aligning understanding raises performance. It does not recommend that everyone hold the same opinion.
Leslie A. DeChurch; Jessica R. Mesmer-Magnus (2010). The cognitive underpinnings of effective teamwork: A meta-analysis
Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(1), 32–53
DOI: 10.1037/a0017328
Original research (experiments)2022
Overly shallow?: Miscalibrated expectations create a barrier to deeper conversation
Participants tended to underestimate others' interest and overestimate how awkward the conversation would be. Better-calibrated expectations made deeper topics more likely to be chosen.
Connection to this page
Rather than assuming the other person is uninterested, ask within appropriate boundaries and update your view from their actual response.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Across experiments, people including strangers conversed using questions about shallow or deeper topics. Expectations were compared with actual awkwardness, connection and the other person's interest.
Scope and limitations
The research includes intimate self-disclosure and does not directly measure workplace problem solving or checking accuracy. It does not justify asking every person to disclose deeply.
Michael Kardas; Amit Kumar; Nicholas Epley (2022). Overly shallow?: Miscalibrated expectations create a barrier to deeper conversation
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 122(3), 367–398
DOI: 10.1037/pspa0000281
Research review and theoretical discussion (book chapter)1973
Considerations of some problems of comprehension
Argued that understanding language draws on knowledge of the world and visual context as well as linguistic knowledge. The same linguistic information can have different meanings depending on the knowledge or situation to which it is related.
Connection to this page
Provides background for recognizing that the word 'check' alone may not establish a shared purpose or endpoint for the work, and for asking which situation the other person has in mind.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Presented and examined experiments relating context and prior knowledge to comprehension and memory, discussing the role of knowledge structures in understanding.
Scope and limitations
This is a theoretical synthesis of experiments, not a single original experiment, systematic review or meta-analysis. It did not directly measure occupational differences or the effects of a particular checking method.
John D. Bransford; Marcia K. Johnson (1973). Considerations of some problems of comprehension
W. G. Chase (Ed.), Visual Information Processing, pp. 383–438 (Academic Press; book chapter)
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-170150-5.50014-7
Original research (experiments)1977
Taking different perspectives on a story
Information important from a given perspective was related to whether it was learned and recalled one week later. The findings supported the account that reading perspective helps organize and retrieve information.
Connection to this page
The same material may draw attention to different information depending on why someone reads it. Check the person's purpose and focus rather than assigning a fixed perspective by occupation.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Two experiments with 176 university students examined stories read from an assigned perspective or with no assigned perspective, relating importance ratings to immediate and one-week recall.
Scope and limitations
The research used temporarily assigned perspectives and story memory, not actual occupational differences. An erratum in the same year corrected a table heading and statistical notation in the results; this summary does not quote those statistics.
James W. Pichert; Richard C. Anderson (1977). Taking different perspectives on a story
Journal of Educational Psychology, 69(4), 309–315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-0663.69.4.309
Original research (experiments)2000
Taking perspective in conversation: The role of mutual knowledge in comprehension
Listeners also looked at objects the speaker could not see. Their search for referents was not restricted to mutually visible objects, suggesting a process of correcting interpretations using mutual knowledge.
Connection to this page
Check what each person can see and knows, rather than assuming that materials or circumstances obvious to you are also known to the other person.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Two experiments tracked eye movements while people followed instructions to move objects, examining whether objects visible to both parties and objects hidden from the speaker became candidate referents.
Scope and limitations
The experiments used constrained object arrangements and instructions, with eye movements indicating candidate interpretations. They do not mean people cannot use others' perspectives or that every conversation follows the same sequence of misunderstanding.
Boaz Keysar; Dale J. Barr; Jennifer A. Balin; Jason S. Brauner (2000). Taking perspective in conversation: The role of mutual knowledge in comprehension
Psychological Science, 11(1), 32–38
DOI: 10.1111/1467-9280.00211
Field study (questionnaires, interviews and observation)1999
Psychological Safety and Learning Behavior in Work Teams
Psychological safety was associated with learning behaviors such as asking questions, seeking help and sharing errors.
Connection to this page
Relationships that allow people to express uncertainty and concerns can support consultation and the checking of assumptions.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Used multiple methods to examine psychological safety, learning behavior and team performance in 51 teams in a manufacturing company.
Scope and limitations
This was an observational study in one company. It did not establish that increasing a sense of safety alone causes better performance.
Amy Edmondson (1999). Psychological Safety and Learning Behavior in Work Teams
Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(2), 350–383
DOI: 10.2307/2666999
Meta-analysis2017
Psychological Safety: A Meta-Analytic Review and Extension
Organized evidence on antecedents of psychological safety and its relationships with task performance and learning, also examining differences across research designs and cultures.
Connection to this page
Look at relationships with supervisors and supportive conditions, rather than relying only on personal courage to speak up or seek advice.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Combined 136 independent samples involving over 22,000 people and about 5,000 groups, examining relationships at both individual and group levels.
Scope and limitations
Studies used different designs and measures. The review cannot be read as the effect of one intervention or a causal relationship shared by every workplace.
M. Lance Frazier, Stav Fainshmidt, Ryan L. Klinger, Amir Pezeshkan, Veselina Vracheva (2017). Psychological Safety: A Meta-Analytic Review and Extension
Personnel Psychology, 70(1), 113–165
DOI: 10.1111/peps.12183
Field study (survey of health care teams)2006
Making it safe: the effects of leader inclusiveness and professional status on psychological safety and improvement efforts in health care teams
Leaders' words and actions inviting and appreciating contributions were associated with psychological safety and reduced differences related to professional status.
Connection to this page
Relates to managers inviting views from people who have not yet spoken and respecting what they contribute.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Examined professional status, leader inclusiveness and psychological safety in 23 neonatal intensive care units participating in improvement work.
Scope and limitations
This health care survey cannot be directly translated into effects of organizational rank or individual phrases in other businesses.
Ingrid M. Nembhard, Amy C. Edmondson (2006). Making it safe: the effects of leader inclusiveness and professional status on psychological safety and improvement efforts in health care teams
Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27(7), 941–966
DOI: 10.1002/job.413
Field study (two-stage survey)2007
Leadership Behavior and Employee Voice: Is the Door Really Open?
Perceived managerial openness was consistently associated with subordinates' speaking up, with perceptions of psychological safety involved in that relationship.
Connection to this page
Consider not only inviting consultation, but also how a manager responds after advice is sought or a different view is raised.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Examined supervisors' behavior and improvement-oriented employee voice among 3,149 employees and 223 managers in a restaurant chain.
Scope and limitations
The survey covered one industry. It cannot establish that one particular phrase from a supervisor increases employee voice.
James R. Detert, Ethan R. Burris (2007). Leadership Behavior and Employee Voice: Is the Door Really Open?
Academy of Management Journal, 50(4), 869–884
DOI: 10.5465/amj.2007.26279183
Field study (two-wave panel survey)2012
Psychological Antecedents of Promotive and Prohibitive Voice: A Two-Wave Examination
Responsibility for improvement was particularly strongly associated with proposing improvements, while psychological safety was particularly strongly associated with pointing out problems or risks.
Connection to this page
When inviting views in a meeting, consider asking both for new ideas and for concerns that may have been overlooked.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Surveyed 239 employees at two time points, examining psychological factors in relation to voice behaviors rated by supervisors.
Scope and limitations
Separating measurement over time does not make the study a randomized experiment. Relationships differ with the type of voice and the situation.
Jian Liang, Crystal I. C. Farh, Jiing-Lih Farh (2012). Psychological Antecedents of Promotive and Prohibitive Voice: A Two-Wave Examination
Academy of Management Journal, 55(1), 71–92
DOI: 10.5465/amj.2010.0176
Experimental research (six laboratory and field studies)2008
If You Need Help, Just Ask: Underestimating Compliance With Direct Requests for Help
Requesters underestimated the likelihood of receiving help and tended to overlook the social discomfort another person may experience when refusing.
Connection to this page
Ask for specific help before carrying a problem alone, while making room for the other person to decline or explain conditions.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Compared requesters' predictions with actual compliance with direct requests for help, investigating prediction biases through manipulations including changes in perspective.
Scope and limitations
The research concerns direct requests and cannot be generalized to all emails or long-term workplace relationships. Compliance should also be distinguished from willing agreement.
Francis J. Flynn, Vanessa K. B. Lake (2008). If You Need Help, Just Ask: Underestimating Compliance With Direct Requests for Help
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(1), 128–143
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.128
Meta-analysis2009
Information Sharing and Team Performance: A Meta-Analysis
Information sharing was positively associated with team performance. The strength of the relationship varied with what was shared, the task and the structure of discussion.
Connection to this page
Bring forward information and concerns that have not yet been shared, rather than only repeating familiar points in meetings.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Combined 72 independent studies involving 4,795 groups and 17,279 people, examining information sharing, team performance and factors such as discussion structure.
Scope and limitations
Many studies were correlational, so sharing information does not guarantee better performance. The review also distinguishes information everyone already knows from information held by individual members.
Jessica R. Mesmer-Magnus, Leslie A. DeChurch (2009). Information Sharing and Team Performance: A Meta-Analysis
Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(2), 535–546
DOI: 10.1037/a0013773
Meta-analysis integrating quantitative and qualitative studies2018
When Leadership Powers Team Learning: A Meta-Analysis
Support for people and relationships was associated with learning across multiple tasks. The relationship for task-structuring behavior differed by task type.
Connection to this page
Consider managers providing information, support and room to think so that teams can review experience, beyond deciding the answers themselves.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Combined 43 studies and 92 effect sizes to examine relationships between leadership approaches and team learning behaviors across task types.
Scope and limitations
Too few studies were available to distinguish detailed leadership behaviors, and measurement methods varied. The findings also suggested potential problems with excessive procedural structuring.
Mieke Koeslag-Kreunen, Piet Van den Bossche, Michael Hoven, Marcel Van der Klink, Wim Gijselaers (2018). When Leadership Powers Team Learning: A Meta-Analysis
Small Group Research, 49(4), 475–513
DOI: 10.1177/1046496418764824
Experimental research2009
Why is it so hard to do my work? The challenge of attention residue when switching between work tasks
Disengaging attention from unfinished work was difficult, and attention remaining on the previous task was related to performance on the next task.
Connection to this page
Provides background for recording where a task stands and what to do next before moving to other work.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Two experiments manipulated completion of the preceding task and time pressure, comparing attention and performance after switching tasks.
Scope and limitations
The findings concern experimental tasks. Generalization to overall workplace productivity requires further testing.
Sophie Leroy (2009). Why is it so hard to do my work? The challenge of attention residue when switching between work tasks
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 109(2), 168–181
DOI: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2009.04.002
Experimental research2008
The cost of interrupted work: more speed and stress
Participants compensated for interruptions by working faster, but experienced more stress, frustration and perceived effort.
Connection to this page
Consider the burden of interruptions and repeated checking, rather than judging busyness only by processing time.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
48 people answered emails in a simulated workplace under no-interruption, same-context interruption and different-context interruption conditions.
Scope and limitations
Most participants were university students, and the simulated work was brief. No decline in quality was detected in this task.
Gloria Mark, Daniela Gudith, Ulrich Klocke (2008). The cost of interrupted work: more speed and stress
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI ’08), 107–110
DOI: 10.1145/1357054.1357072
Online experimental research2015
Strategic offloading of delayed intentions into the external environment
External cues improved performance on intended actions. Their use varied with memory load and anticipated distraction.
Connection to this page
Provides background for placing cues such as sticky notes or resumption notes where they can bring an action to mind when needed.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Four experiments with 1,196 participants offered the option to place external reminders during tasks requiring an intended action to be remembered over a short delay.
Scope and limitations
Retention intervals in the main task were short, and the relationship predicting later everyday execution was small.
Sam J. Gilbert (2015). Strategic offloading of delayed intentions into the external environment
Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68(5), 971–992
DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2014.972963
Field experiment2015
Checking email less frequently reduces stress
Daily self-reported stress was lower during the restricted-checking week than during the unrestricted week.
Connection to this page
Consider checking times suited to the work before switching tasks whenever a message arrives.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
124 adults participated for two weeks, experiencing a week of checking email no more than three times a day and a week of unrestricted checking, in randomized order.
Scope and limitations
About two-thirds of participants were students, and the study lasted two weeks. Many outcomes were explored; the study does not establish an optimal checking frequency.
Kostadin Kushlev, Elizabeth W. Dunn (2015). Checking email less frequently reduces stress
Computers in Human Behavior, 43, 220–228
DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.005
Empirical research and intervention experiments2018
Tasks Interrupted: How Anticipating Time Pressure on Resumption of an Interrupted Task Causes Attention Residue and Low Performance on Interrupting Tasks and How a “Ready-to-Resume” Plan Mitigates the Effects
Anticipating time pressure on resumption made attention more likely to remain on the interrupted task. A brief resumption plan reduced the impact on the interrupting task.
Connection to this page
Closely relates to briefly recording where to resume the original work when switching to an urgent request.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Four studies examined anticipated time pressure after resuming interrupted work and an intervention that briefly planned how to return to it.
Scope and limitations
The findings depend on the time-pressure and interruption conditions studied. They do not establish effects for every interruption or for all outcomes after resumption.
Sophie Leroy, Theresa M. Glomb (2018). Tasks Interrupted: How Anticipating Time Pressure on Resumption of an Interrupted Task Causes Attention Residue and Low Performance on Interrupting Tasks and How a “Ready-to-Resume” Plan Mitigates the Effects
Organization Science, 29(3), 380–397
DOI: 10.1287/orsc.2017.1184
Foundational theory and computational model2002
Memory for goals: an activation-based model
Explained interruption and resumption of goals through interference from older goals, processes that maintain goals in memory and cues for later retrieval.
Connection to this page
Provides a foundation for understanding why locations and retrieval cues can help resume work, rather than relying on memory alone.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Developed a computational model representing goal memory through activation and associative cues, and tested it against response-time and error data from the Tower of Hanoi task.
Scope and limitations
This theoretical model is based on a particular cognitive task. It did not directly measure the effects of workplace notes.
Erik M. Altmann, J. Gregory Trafton (2002). Memory for goals: an activation-based model
Cognitive Science, 26(1), 39–83
DOI: 10.1207/s15516709cog2601_2
Workplace observational study2016
Email Duration, Batching and Self-interruption: Patterns of Email Use on Productivity and Stress
More time spent on email was associated with lower perceived productivity and higher stress. No association was found between batching email and lower stress.
Connection to this page
Review ways of working in light of workload, notifications and individual use patterns, as well as checking frequency.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Followed 40 knowledge workers over 12 working days, combining computer-use logs, physiological measures and daily questionnaires.
Scope and limitations
The observational design cannot establish causality, and productivity was self-rated. The study does not conclude that batching email is a universal solution.
Gloria Mark, Shamsi T. Iqbal, Mary Czerwinski, Paul Johns, Akane Sano, Yuliya Lutchyn (2016). Email Duration, Batching and Self-interruption: Patterns of Email Use on Productivity and Stress
Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI ’16), 1717–1728
DOI: 10.1145/2858036.2858262
Original experimental research1998
Antecedent- and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology.
Reappraisal and expressive suppression both reduced emotional expression, but their effects on unpleasant feelings and sympathetic nervous system responses differed.
Connection to this page
Provides background for considering responses beyond suppressing facial expression when emotions are stirred.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
120 participants watched an unpleasant film under reappraisal, expressive-suppression or ordinary-viewing conditions. Subjective experience, expression and physiological responses were measured.
Scope and limitations
This was a brief experiment using a particular film. It does not identify the best response to every workplace emotion.
Gross, J. J. (1998). Antecedent- and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1), 224–237
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.224
Diary study and randomized field experiment2013
Benefits of mindfulness at work: The role of mindfulness in emotion regulation, emotional exhaustion, and job satisfaction.
In the diary study, mindful awareness was associated with less emotional exhaustion and greater job satisfaction. Changes in the same directions were observed in the field intervention group, and relationships with surface acting were examined.
Connection to this page
Provides background for distinguishing continued emotional pretense from noticing one's state while choosing how to respond.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Conducted a five-day diary study with 219 employees and a field experiment assigning 64 people to a self-guided mindfulness practice group or a control group.
Scope and limitations
The field experiment was small. Persistence of effects, occupational differences and objective work outcomes require separate examination.
Hülsheger, U. R., Alberts, H. J. E. M., Feinholdt, A., & Lang, J. W. B. (2013). Benefits of mindfulness at work: The role of mindfulness in emotion regulation, emotional exhaustion, and job satisfaction.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 98(2), 310–325
DOI: 10.1037/a0031313
Meta-analysis2011
On the costs and benefits of emotional labor: A meta-analysis of three decades of research.
Discrepancies between felt and required emotions, and surface acting, were associated with poorer well-being and negative job attitudes. Relationships differed from those for attempts to change inner feelings.
Connection to this page
Provides background for checking a person's burden and work conditions, rather than requiring them to appear cheerful at all times.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Combined 494 correlations from 95 independent studies of emotional labor.
Scope and limitations
The review mainly integrates correlational research. It cannot uniformly establish that emotional labor causes poor well-being.
Hülsheger, U. R., & Schewe, A. F. (2011). On the costs and benefits of emotional labor: A meta-analysis of three decades of research.
Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16(3), 361–389
DOI: 10.1037/a0022876
Original experimental research2007
Putting feelings into words: Affect labeling disrupts amygdala activity in response to affective stimuli.
Labeling emotions produced lower responses in the amygdala and related regions, and higher activity in the right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, than other processing conditions.
Connection to this page
Offers a way to consider noticing what surprised or worried you before reacting immediately.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Used fMRI to compare labeling emotions in evocative images with other processing conditions.
Scope and limitations
The findings concern brain activity during an image task. They do not show that putting feelings into words resolves workplace conflicts.
Lieberman, M. D., Eisenberger, N. I., Crockett, M. J., Tom, S. M., Pfeifer, J. H., & Way, B. M. (2007). Putting feelings into words: Affect labeling disrupts amygdala activity in response to affective stimuli.
Psychological Science, 18(5), 421–428
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01916.x
Original experimental research2014
Self-talk as a regulatory mechanism: How you do it matters.
Language adopting a slightly distanced perspective on oneself showed improvements related to psychological distance, coping with stress and behavioral ratings by third parties.
Connection to this page
Relates to reconsidering how you want to proceed before giving an immediate response.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Seven studies involving 585 people compared first-person reflection with reflection using one's name or similar language, including social-stress tasks such as presentations.
Scope and limitations
The evidence mainly concerns short experimental tasks. It does not establish that continuing a particular wording improves long-term work outcomes.
Kross, E., Bruehlman-Senecal, E., Park, J., Burson, A., Dougherty, A., Shablack, H., Bremner, R., Moser, J., & Ayduk, O. (2014). Self-talk as a regulatory mechanism: How you do it matters.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(2), 304–324
DOI: 10.1037/a0035173
Meta-analysis2003
Task versus relationship conflict, team performance, and team member satisfaction: A meta-analysis.
Both types of conflict were negatively associated with performance and satisfaction on average. The negative relationship with performance was smaller when task and relationship conflict were less closely connected.
Connection to this page
Supports returning discussion to differing assumptions, decision criteria and necessary information before moving to judgments about the person.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Combined prior research on task and relationship conflict within teams and their associations with performance and satisfaction.
Scope and limitations
This does not mean every difference of opinion is harmful. Results vary with the task and the way different forms of conflict overlap.
De Dreu, C. K. W., & Weingart, L. R. (2003). Task versus relationship conflict, team performance, and team member satisfaction: A meta-analysis.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(4), 741–749
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.88.4.741
Meta-analysis2012
The paradox of intragroup conflict: A meta-analysis.
Relationship and process conflict showed consistent negative associations. The relationship between task conflict and performance varied with its connection to relationship conflict, the team and the outcome measure.
Connection to this page
Provides background for inviting views not yet voiced while keeping differences over work separate from personal conflict.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Combined 116 studies involving 8,880 groups to examine task, relationship and process conflict in relation to group outcomes.
Scope and limitations
The study does not recommend increasing task conflict for its own sake. It does not justify saying that conflict creates creativity without considering conditions.
de Wit, F. R. C., Greer, L. L., & Jehn, K. A. (2012). The paradox of intragroup conflict: A meta-analysis.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 97(2), 360–390
DOI: 10.1037/a0024844
Original experimental research2002
The Ripple Effect: Emotional Contagion and its Influence on Group Behavior.
Moods were observed spreading within groups. Positive mood contagion was associated with more cooperation, less conflict and higher subjective task-performance ratings.
Connection to this page
Provides background for considering how one's responses and expressions also shape conditions for later consultations and meetings.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Placed a confederate expressing pleasant or unpleasant moods at different energy levels into small decision-making groups, comparing self-reports with video-based ratings.
Scope and limitations
This was a brief group task with students. The performance ratings measured cannot be equated with objective improvements in business results.
Barsade, S. G. (2002). The Ripple Effect: Emotional Contagion and its Influence on Group Behavior.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 47(4), 644–675
DOI: 10.2307/3094912
Foundational theory and conceptual paper2005
Organizing and the Process of Sensemaking.
Positions sensemaking as a process of developing understanding through interaction and action, beyond adding an explanation after an event.
Connection to this page
Relates to this page's approach of comparing events, records and participants' accounts to update understanding of the work.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Draws on prior research to organize an account of how people in organizations put cues from events into words and develop understanding and action.
Scope and limitations
This is not an experiment comparing the effects of particular methods. Making sense of an event does not guarantee that the interpretation is correct.
Weick, K. E., Sutcliffe, K. M., & Obstfeld, D. (2005). Organizing and the Process of Sensemaking.
Organization Science, 16(4), 409–421
DOI: 10.1287/orsc.1050.0133
Integrative research review and theoretical framework2023
The Role of Language in Organizational Sensemaking: An Integrative Theoretical Framework and an Agenda for Future Research.
Describes language as shaping understanding of events by providing cognitive frames and through interpersonal interactions and ideas shared within organizations.
Connection to this page
Provides background for examining how people add meaning to the same words through differences in roles, contexts and interactions.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Collected and selected literature on language and organizational sensemaking through June 2022, organizing theoretical perspectives from 224 publications.
Scope and limitations
This review integrates theory and research. It is not an experiment estimating the effects of particular words or ways of speaking.
Whittle, A., Vaara, E., & Maitlis, S. (2023). The Role of Language in Organizational Sensemaking: An Integrative Theoretical Framework and an Agenda for Future Research.
Journal of Management, 49(6), 1807–1840
DOI: 10.1177/01492063221147295
Original experimental research1984
Considering the opposite: A corrective strategy for social judgment.
Prompts to consider possibilities opposite to one's current belief reduced judgment biases more than instructions simply to be fair.
Connection to this page
Relates to checking for missing evidence and asking whether another interpretation could explain the situation.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Two experiments examined evaluation of evidence about a social issue and hypothesis testing in forming impressions of people.
Scope and limitations
The findings concern particular social-judgment tasks. Considering an opposing view does not prevent every mistaken judgment.
Lord, C. G., Lepper, M. R., & Preston, E. (1984). Considering the opposite: A corrective strategy for social judgment.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47(6), 1231–1243
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.47.6.1231
Meta-analysis2009
Does incubation enhance problem solving? A meta-analytic review.
Taking a break from a problem helped on average, with larger effects for divergent-thinking tasks. Preparation and the cognitive demands of activities during the break were also related to outcomes.
Connection to this page
Offers a basis for reconsidering information and how to use time when thinking becomes stuck.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Examined the effects of setting a problem aside and returning to it, comparing problem types, preparation time and activities during the break.
Scope and limitations
The findings do not mean that resting solves every problem. Adequate preparation and conditions suited to the task matter.
Sio, U. N., & Ormerod, T. C. (2009). Does incubation enhance problem solving? A meta-analytic review.
Psychological Bulletin, 135(1), 94–120
DOI: 10.1037/a0014212
Meta-analysis2004
The effectiveness of creativity training: A quantitative review.
Well-designed programs showed performance improvements. Those emphasizing cognitive skills, their use and realistic practice relevant to the domain were relatively effective.
Connection to this page
Relates to designing practice that observes another person's work, tests unfinished ideas and develops questions and possibilities.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Combined 70 evaluation studies of creativity-development programs, examining differences in content and delivery.
Scope and limitations
The review integrates prior studies with diverse participants, measures and training. It does not guarantee effects from a brief idea-generation technique alone.
Scott, G., Leritz, L. E., & Mumford, M. D. (2004). The effectiveness of creativity training: A quantitative review.
Creativity Research Journal, 16(4), 361–388
DOI: 10.1080/10400410409534549
Original longitudinal experiments2015
Debiasing Decisions: Improved Decision Making With a Single Training Intervention.
Both interventions reduced biases on the measured tasks. The game, which included practice and personalized feedback, produced larger effects.
Connection to this page
Provides background for creating conditions to practice ways of thinking and check results, rather than explaining judgment solely through personality.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Two longitudinal experiments used a single game or video intervention addressing multiple cognitive biases, comparing outcomes immediately and at follow-ups two months or more later.
Scope and limitations
The findings concern the biases and tasks studied. Transfer to actual workplace judgments and organizational outcomes requires separate examination.
Morewedge, C. K., Yoon, H., Scopelliti, I., Symborski, C. W., Korris, J. H., & Kassam, K. S. (2015). Debiasing Decisions: Improved Decision Making With a Single Training Intervention.
Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2(1), 129–140
DOI: 10.1177/2372732215600886
Original experimental research2001
Devil's advocate versus authentic dissent: Stimulating quantity and quality.
A genuinely dissenting minority produced better quantity and quality of solutions than any of the devil's advocate conditions.
Connection to this page
Provides background for inviting views not yet expressed in meetings and checking how others see the situation.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
Compared a minority genuinely holding a different opinion with three conditions involving a devil's advocate role, measuring the quantity and quality of solutions.
Scope and limitations
The findings concern a particular experimental task. They do not mean every use of a devil's advocate is ineffective.
Nemeth, C., Brown, K., & Rogers, J. (2001). Devil's advocate versus authentic dissent: Stimulating quantity and quality.
European Journal of Social Psychology, 31(6), 707–720
DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.58
Field forecasting study and intervention comparison2014
Psychological Strategies for Winning a Geopolitical Forecasting Tournament.
Training in probabilistic judgment and team collaboration were among the approaches linked to improved probability calibration and discrimination between events.
Connection to this page
Relates to recording the reasons and expectations behind a judgment, comparing them with actual responses and using the experience in later judgments.
Participants, methods, scope and bibliography
Participants and methods
During a two-year geopolitical forecasting tournament, examined training in probabilistic judgment, team sharing of information and reasons, and tracking of forecasting performance.
Scope and limitations
The findings concern probabilistic forecasts of geopolitical events. Selected high performers must be distinguished from intervention effects.
Mellers, B., Ungar, L., Baron, J., Ramos, J., Gurcay, B., Fincher, K., Scott, S. E., Moore, D., Atanasov, P., Swift, S. A., Murray, T., Stone, E., & Tetlock, P. E. (2014). Psychological Strategies for Winning a Geopolitical Forecasting Tournament.
